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30 Brown, Karl, The Extraordinary Career of Feketevg r: Wood Theft, pig Killing, and Entrepreneurship in Communist Hungary, 19481956, in Bren, Paulina and Neuberger, Mary eds., Communism Unwrapped: Consumption in Cold War Eastern Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 27797, 278CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Edelman, Robert, The Five Hats of Nina Ponomareva: Sport, Shoplifting and the Cold War, Cold War History, 17, 3 (2017), 22339, 2378CrossRefGoogle Scholar. American athletes have defected to China to compete against the United States, and some of them are even using fake names. Athletes from Afghanistan carry their countrys flag in Paralympics Closing CAS report explains decision for ban of track star Shelby Houlihan, rejects ShaCarri Richardson finally gets in blocks, finishes last in 100 at Prefon After missing the Olympics, ShaCarri Richardson gets her shot against the Afghanistans first female Paralympian is trapped in Kabul and cannot get t Polish Olympian auctions off silver medal to help pay for infants surgery. : Patrons, Clients, Brokers and Unofficial Networks in the Stalinist Music World, Contemporary European History, 11, 1 (Feb. 2002), 3365CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Tsimanouskaya told the Associated Press her move to seek asylum was not premeditated. Now 78, she lives with her husband, retired physics professor Charles Shapiro, in Novato, Calif., while Aniko lives nearby and works as a chemical engineer. An Olympic teammate returning to Hungary from Melbourne smuggled a letter from Takach to his fiance, Magda, encouraging her to escape. 2023 ABG-SI LLC. 79 Gyarmati's Story, Sports Illustrated. 47 Szcs was tried in an accelerated procedure by the military court, with soldiers standing along the corridor. In the run-up to the 2008 Olympics, after a 1-1 draw against the United States, seven members of the Cuban under-23 soccer team fled from a Tampa hotel during an Olympic qualifying tournament in March. 60 A. ghassi, Egy elmaradt kzfogs trte kett az lett, 19 Aug. 2006, available at http://index.hu/sport/2006/08/19/060816bg/, (last visited 18 June 2017); Ldia Skovics, interview with the author, 1 Apr. By the eve of the 1956 Olympics he had set a world record in the 1,500 meters and become the third miler to break four minutes. George Domolky, for his part, never looked back after getting a taste of the West: He joined the SI tour, then fenced at Stanford and got his MBA from Cal. Some of them returned home, where they were welcomed back and some even represented Hungary in later Olympics. She met her husband, Bernd Wachter, an international marketing executive for an oil company, in New York City while studying art history there. Tr defected from Hungary during the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. Paperback - March 3, 2020. team famously defected during the 1956 Olympics in Melbourne after they found out the Soviet Union stamped out the Hungarian Revolution in Budapest. Four Congolese team members, including a technical athletic director and coach, also didnt make it back to their home nation after the Olympics end. "The story he told me on our last visit sounded true," says former teammate Eugene Hamori, who saw Keresztes shortly before his death. While her team wined and dined, Ute Gaehler, an alternate for East Germanys toboggan team, ran for the border. The prosecution found evidence of Szcs's signature on forms that acknowledged his understanding of these laws. More than 100 athletes may have defected at the Munich games in 1972, according to the Associated Press, though little is known about them and the exact number is still disputed. 65 In comparison, more than 10 per cent of the Hungarians who left the nation after 1956 returned in 1957. But after defecting, Zador, the finest young water polo player in Europe, never played competitively again. L. Rab, A trsait szitv lttk, a Magyar sztehetsg tllte az ugat hallt, 21 Aug. 2016, available at http://nol.hu/kultura/a-tarsait-szitava-lottek-a-magyar-uszotehetseg-tulelte-az-ugato-halalt-1628457 (last visited 24 Nov. 2017). Fax +36 1 386 9670. Soproni, j csillagok. 1124. The following list of Eastern Bloc defectors contains notable defectors from East Germany, the Soviet Union, Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Albania before those countries' conversions from Communist states in the early 1990s. Render date: 2023-03-04T05:46:50.315Z He landed a job with the government in Washington, D.C., that used his ability to speak six languages, but he feared an escalation of the cold war and fled to coach in Scandinavia. From Defectors to Cooperators: The Impact of 1956 on Ursinus College, 601 E. Main Street, Collegeville, PA 19426, United States, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0960777319000183, Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. 34 Attila Csszri, interview with the author, Budapest, 20 May 2015. Silk, Mike, Schultz, Jaime and Bracey, Bryan, From Mice to Men: Miracle, Mythology, and the Magic Kingdom, Sport in Society, 11, 23 (2008), 27997, 281CrossRefGoogle Scholar. China was next best with 88 total and 38 gold. Poland has given the athlete a humanitarian visa, and she will fly to Warsaw on Wednesday to seek asylum, according to Alexander Opeikin, executive director of the Belarusian Sports Solidarity Foundation, a group that opposes the Belarusian government. Aka Amuam Joseph, a Cameroon Karate Federation member, told CNN: Back home, they arent giving the proper training. Many Afghani athletes feared going to Moscow and jumped ship to avoid it. She sought the protection of Japanese authorities at the Tokyo airport Sunday night. Hungary has won more Olympic medals than any other nation that has never hosted Games. Reduced to serving as the rec director of an orphanage on Long Island, he was afraid to return to Hungary because of things he had been quoted as saying. But I was so homesick for my mother. Magyar Olimpiai Bizottsg. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. An estimated 55 of the 110 Hungarian athletes and coaches defected at the end of the 1956 Olympics, and 35 sought asylum in the United States. She became the first person to defect at the Olympics, at least in the modern era, and a tradition was born. Having a background in mechanical engineering, he then spent six years as a wheelchair designer in Southern California before returning to track as a coach. 7 On how Soviet sport bureaucrats balanced these two priorities, see Parks, Olympic Games. "I went back in the '70s and couldn't believe I'd lived there. Takach studied electrical engineering at USC, then worked in the aerospace industry until the mid '70s when he followed the jobs north to Silicon Valley. The nation was not invited to the 1920 Games after World War I . Competing in four Summer Olympics, he won a bronze medal in the C-2 1000 m event at Rome in 1960 . vilghbor utn A kommunista diktatra viszonya a hazai labdargkhoz 1956-ig, Palette: I. j- s Jelenkortrtni Tudomnyos Dikkonferencia, ELTE BTK j- s Jelentkori Magyar Trtneti Tanszk, The Communist Rule in Polish Sport History, Romania at the Olympics: Women Gymnasts as Ambassadors in Sportswear, 1950s1970s, The People's Game: Football, State and Society, Des sordides actes de spculation: traces de circulations conomiques dans les dlgations sportives sovitiques (19671982), Sport Under Communism: Behind the East German Miracle, Beyond Boycotts: Sport during the Cold War in Europe, The Whole World Was Watching: Sport in the Cold War, The Emergence of Europe-Wide Collaboration and Cooperation: Soviet Sports Interactions in Europe. I am positively convinced that if the government did more in this field, we would have little of this disturbance, Joseph told CNN. See Braun, Jutta and Wiese, Ren, Tracksuit Traitors: Eastern German Top Athletes on the Run, The International Journal of the History of Sport, 31, 12 (2014), 151934CrossRefGoogle Scholar. In 1972 he moved to New Orleans, where he taught at Tulane Medical School, presided over a local fencing salle and, with his former wife, Annemarie, also a Hungarian migr, raised two daughters, both doctors. This contrasts with the experience of athlete-defectors from East Germany. Email info@olimpia.hu. When the team heard the news, only 38 athletes decided to ride the plane back home. Andre Laguerre and members of the Sports Illustrated via Getty Images . "I have a pretty good reputation and can go back over my bridges. 83 See especially Llewellyn and Gleaves, Rise and Fall. He won national sabre titles in three of his first five years in the U.S. while fencing for his Olympic coach and fellow defector, George Piller, at San Francisco's Pannonia Athletic Club and across the bay at Cal. The steeplechaser said he felt conditions at home seemed to be getting worse, according to the news outlet. The 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne, Australia, were held just weeks after Soviet tanks and troops crushed an uprising in Hungary. The head of the Soviet Olympic squad claimed that unidentified terrorists had kidnapped Nemtsanov and brainwashed him to embrace freedom. In reality, Nemtsanov had fallen in love with a female diver from Cincinnati and was hiding with a family in Ontario. And when the International Swimming Hall of Fame inducted Katherine in 1985, Arpad threw a huge party for her at L'Orangerie, with Zsa Zsa Gabor, Art Linkletter and Anna Maria Alberghetti among the guests. His runners -- Sandor Iharos, Istvan Rozsavogli and fellow defector Laszlo Tabori -- had been the Kenyans of their time, breaking 22 world records between 1954 and the Melbourne Games. Young, single and one of the best divers in the world, Gerlach was only too happy to swan into Port-a-Pit foam padding for money. Dufraisse, Sylvain, The Emergence of Europe-Wide Collaboration and Cooperation: Soviet Sports Interactions in Europe. An Olympic Defector's Chronicle." This retired naval architect still . An actress can get another role and it's the same work. Title Hungarian Olympic Committee. Hungarian Olympic Triumph! Their son, Bryan, walked on at USC in a quintessentially American sport, basketball. 1957, 32. Athlete defections from Cuba, not only during the Olympics, have been common since the 1959 Cuban revolution. Olympic officials said Tuesday they would investigate Belarus over her claims. Back where the SI tour began, he took a job lifeguarding at an athletic club in Oakland for $6 an hour plus meals, then went on to install air conditioning, build furniture, work as a masseur, carve gun handles, open a restaurant and run a hotel. Teams from Hungary have been in most Summer Olympic Games and every Winter Olympic Games since then. He died in 2009 at age 81; his widow, 76, still lives in the Buda apartment they shared for 52 years. 1951, P. 1011, 3.1.9. 1945mid-1960s, Ennival s hozomny: a kora kdrizmus ideolgija, Bevezets a Kdrizmusba: Magyarorszg a Szovjetuni rnykban, 19441989, The Workers State: Industrial Labor and the Making of Communist Hungary, 19441958, Socialism Goes Global: Decolonization and the Making of a New Culture of Internationalism in Socialist Hungary, 19561989. 71 K, Andrs, Lszl Tbori, A Biography: The Legendary Story of the Great Hungarian Runner (Sarasota: First Edition Design Publishing, 2015), 103Google Scholar. The Russian defector, Sergei Nemtsanov, was a 17-year-old diver when he disappeared from the Olympic Village during the Games. A week later, he rejected that same flag and defected to the U.S. Ahmed vocally opposed Saddam Husseins regime, and he feared execution. He became close to the royal family in Sweden, where he died in 2005 at 87. Dek Ferenc rny. Women's marathoning pioneers Jacqueline Hansen and Miki Gorman flourished under Tabori, who repaid their trust with a confidence rare for male coaches of that era. TOKYO, Oct. 23 Three Hungarians, one a member of his country's Olympic canoeing team, have defected to the United States. 2 Az MTST legfelsbb fegyelmi s panaszgyi bizottsgnak hatrozatai, NpSport, 24 Aug. 1958, 4. One of the defectors was Sergei Nemtsanov, a 17-year-old Russian diver. All Rights Reserved. They were a common thing of the Cold War, which saw a number of sportspeople from the Eastern bloc and the USSR seize the opportunity of a sports competition in the West to stay away from their country.iii At the 1956 Melbourne Olympic games, which took place less than 2 weeks after the Hungarian revolution and its violent repression by the Red . The resulting mission, Operation Griffin, enabled one-third of the Hungarian Olympic team and four Romanian Olympic athletes to defect to the United States directly after the Melbourne Olympic Games. He settled in Florida, lifeguarding and coaching divers, and went on to design swimming pools, run an adult bookstore and rent himself out as bridge partner.He told Hungarian TV in 2006 that he simply followed defecting divers Frank Siak and Joe Gerlach: "Fifty years later, I'm still here." "Instead of going back a hero, making 3,000 forints a month, having a chance to go to the next three Olympics, I gave all that up to be a nobody with no marketable skills who didn't speak the language," he said before he died in April at age 77. Has data issue: true Some of the soccer players who defected in 2008 under a U.S. policy that allowed Cubans to obtain asylum upon reaching American soil went on to play for other teams. The CIA and the Cultural Cold War, Aquatics 19082008: 100 Years of Excellent in Sport, Holistic Approach to Athletic Talent Development Environments: A Successful Sailing Milieu, http://rtl.hu/rtlklub/hirek/XXI_szazad/videok/314174, http://nol.hu/kultura/a-tarsait-szitava-lottek-a-magyar-uszotehetseg-tulelte-az-ugato-halalt-1628457, http://index.hu/sport/2006/08/19/060816bg/, http://m.heol.hu/heves/sport/kadas-geza-a-gyorsuszobol-lett-peldakep-450770. I'm just an eternal optimist, a diver from a country that had one pool with a diving board.". A sabreman who won a gold medal in Melbourne in the team event, Hamori continued to fence, winning two individual U.S. sabre titles and, in 1964, a berth on the U.S. team in Tokyo. Although there are numerous factors that can influence the development of successful athletes, some of the important possible factors that relate to the parents' socio-economic and cultural background include the athletes' preconditions (coaching resources, training, facilities and finances) and their ability to acquire the necessary psycho-social competencies (sport knowledge and connections). 54 A forradalom vrtaninak szellemben, Magyar Npsport, 1 Nov. 1956, 1. This article was published more than1 year ago. Hungarian Defectors Story: 1956 Summer Olympics: Closeup portrait of Hungary gymnast Andrea Bodo during photo shoot in private home. Will of the People ialah album studio kesembilan oleh kumpulan rock Inggeris Muse, dikeluarkan pada 26 Ogos 2022 melalui Warner Records dan Helium-3. In 1984, a San Diego newspaper hired Romanian sportswriter Vladimir Moraru as a translator. The five children she raised with her husband, Dan Zimsen, have dual citizenship. Without a passport, he was detained by Austrian guards at the border for trying to use his Olympic I.D. Zador's lone Stateside water polo thrill came in 1999, when he watched his daughter, Christine, score the overtime goal for USC that beat Stanford and gave the Trojans an NCAA title. Hungarian Olympic Committee chairman Pal Schmit said Hungary is willing to help Comaneci. When parents at the Bay Area club heard Zador had been an Olympian, they asked him to teach their children to swim. Decorated Kenyan runner found stabbed to death; police say her husband is a Olympic officials wont push China on human rights ahead of Beijing Games, A cyclist won silver in the Tokyo Olympics. In 1974 Takach climbed the Matterhorn, and as recently as 2010, before contracting melanoma, was still doing front flips on a mat. 107 The 2016 unveiling of coach Lszl Kiss's criminal past could besmirch their reputations. 59 Nick (Mikls) Martin, interview with the author and Toby Rider, 6 Nov. 2017, Pasadena, CA. 97 See Saunders, Frances Stoner, Who Paid the Piper? Its weight room offers a limited selection and a peeling carpet, according to CNN. 45 Szcs Sndor, 3 Mar. Scared for his life, he acquired refugee status in Canada. The last one retired. There were Hungarian athletes who remained in Melbourne following the Olympics. Heres a look at some other Olympic defections. He died in Port Orange, Fla., in 2009 at age 88. He competed in two more Olympics, winning another gold in Tokyo, then served as coach as Hungary won Olympic gold in 1976 and three world titles. 20 Gyrgy Pteri provides an excellent analysis of how Hungary's concerns about its external legitimacy impacted the state's participation in a 1958 international exposition, and the handling of a writer who had contacts with Imre Nagy but was tasked with creating a Hungarian pavilion at the 1958 show. "It's a skateboard that works like a surfboard," says Gerlach, who's 73 and lives in Ontario, Calif. "A board that can ride uphill. Zimsen, who is 72 and lives with her husband in Bremerton, Wash., proudly points to a Seattle Post-Intelligencer front page from late 1959, where a picture of her happens to run adjacent to one of Soviet premier Nikita Kruschchev. In the modern history of the games, the early cases. 1968 was the first time summer athletes had to take sex verification tests. The controversial tests stirred up some noise, helping Cuban tennis player Juan Campos quietly defect to Mexico amid the ruckus. "Without the Revolution, I wouldn't be here," Schmid-Shapiro says. At 80 he's still an adjunct professor of French at PCC and swims a mile each day. Before the stunt work Gerlach coached three divers who made the 1964 Olympics, and after the stunt work dried up in 1978 he he helped create and promote a laser light show and then served as manager, coach and agent for his pro surfer son, Brad. The two began talking and agreed to put up a house on the site. Lidia went on to win gold in Tokyo and silver in Rome and Mexico City, then earn her phys-ed degree and coaching certification before working as a sportswriter and co-writing books on aesthetic movement and gymnastics. Belarusian Olympic sprinter who sought protection in Japan granted Polish visa. An Iranian taekwondo athlete competing for the Refugee Olympic Team made her mark at Tokyo 2020 after she defeated two-time Olympic gold medalist Jade Jones. by Campbell, Alan, 2, 3 (2013), 66775Google Scholar; Takcs, Tibor, Them and Us: Narratives of Agents from the Kadar Era, The Hungarian Historical Review, 4, 1 (2015), 14470, 167Google Scholar. Hostname: page-component-7fc98996b9-74dff Henriksen, Kristoffer, Stambulova, Natalia and Roessler, Kirsten Kaya, Holistic Approach to Athletic Talent Development Environments: A Successful Sailing Milieu, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11, 3 (2010), 21222CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 214. Stalinism Reloaded: Everyday Life in Stalin-City, Hungary, The 1956 Revolution and the Melbourne Olympics: The Changing Perceptions of a Dramatic Story, Dictatorship of Experience: Towards a Socio-Cultural History of the GDR, The People's State: East German Society from Hitler to Honecker, Balkan Smoke: Tobacco and the Making of Modern Bulgaria, Communism Unwrapped: Consumption in Cold War Eastern Europe, Nylon Curtain Transnational and Transsystemic Tendencies in the Cultural Life of State-Socialist Russian and East-Central Europe. Petra and her relay finished with a time of 3:47.15 which was good enough to break the Hungarian national record by more than a second. Peterdi, Pl, Gyarmati sors, avagy egy bal kz trtnete, (Lakitelek: Antolgia Kiad: 2007), 118Google Scholar. After selling more than 50,000 Carveboards in 35 countries, the business has ridden the go-down part of that cycle. Arpad would knock off his day job at five, then hammer away until after midnight. She made it safely. Belarusian Olympic sprinter Krystsina Tsimanouskaya has sought refuge at the Polish Embassy in Tokyo becoming the latest Olympic athlete to refuse to return to her country out of fear for her personal safety. An estimated 55 of the 110 Hungarian athletes and coaches defected at the end of the 1956 Olympics, and 35 sought asylum in the United States. Address Budapest. Those who remained in the U.S. pursued a variety of careers, not just in sports, and many raised families and achieved considerable success. 41 Most other sports, such as swimming and fencing, did not enjoy the same professional status. '", Siak learned English chatting up college kids at the pool in Winter Park, Fla., where he lifeguarded, then joined the Water Follies for three years before a broken shoulder forced him to quit. Luiz Muzzi, then-general manager of United Soccer League club Miami FC, told the Herald that he watched the Cuba-U.S. match on TV while kind of scouting because anytime a Cuban team comes to the United States, theres a chance someone might defect, he said. Belarusian Olympic sprinter Krystsina Tsimanouskaya received a Polish visa on Aug. 2, after refusing to fly back to her country out of fear for her safety. 21 On the American side of the defections, see Toby Rider, Cold War. For some athletes, the Olympics arent just a chance to compete theyre an opportunity to defect. ), The Dancer Defects: The Struggle for Cultural Supremacy During the Cold War, Virtuoso Abroad: Soviet Music and Imperial Competition During the Early Cold War, 19451958, The Olympic Games, the Soviet Sports Bureaucracy, and the Cold War: Red Sport, Red Tape, The Five Hats of Nina Ponomareva: Sport, Shoplifting and the Cold War, Transsystemic Fantasies: Counterrevolutionary Hungary at Brussels Expo58, Divided but not disconnected: Studying a New Paradigm for the History of Sport during the Cold War, From Mice to Men: Miracle, Mythology, and the Magic Kingdom, American Sport Policy and the Cultural Cold War: The Lyndon B. Johnson Presidential Years, Dropping the Torch: Jimmy Carter, the Olympic Boycott, and the Cold War, Cold War Games: Propaganda, the Olympics and U.S. Foreign Policy, Diplomatic Games: Sport, Statecraft, and International Relations Since 1945, Faust's Gold: Inside the East German Doping Machine, Presenting Heroes: Athletes as Role Models for the New Soviet Person, The International Journal of the History of Sport, Physical Culture and Sport in Soviet Society: Propaganda, Acculturation, and Transformation in the 1920s and 1930s, Sport and the Olympic Movement in Hungary (19451989), Futball s politika kapcsolata Magyarorszgon a II. After tasting stardom, the jobs they could find in a strange country -- as an auto mechanic and a draftswoman -- paled enough to prompt the couple to return to Hungary within a year. and for this article. Andre LaGuerre and members of the Sports Illustrated via Getty Images staff aided in some of their defections. 68 On the concept of amateurism, see Llewellyn and Gleaves, Rise and Fall. 95 Itt Tdor beszk a Sportuszodbl Sport, 24 Feb. 1957, 4. 33 Szikora, Sport and the Olympic, 1334. 2023 Minute Media - All Rights Reserved. "When returning to his favorite nightclub after 50 years, the old bartender asked him, 'Mr. "My talents would have been wasted or not recognized if I hadn't come to the U.S. They anglicized their Hungarian surname Domjan to Domyan. At the 1987 World Veterans Games in Melbourne, Hansen made a point of entering the same two events Tabori had run, in the same city, more than 30 years earlier -- and after winning gold medals in each, she gave the 1,500 medal to her coach. As the iron curtain descended on his home in Budapest, Hungary, Andrs Tr turned to one of the few opportunities permitted by the communist government the sport of canoeing. Using a scholarship reserved for Hungarian refugees, she enrolled at Colorado, studying dance and phys ed and competing in and coaching gymnastics. 29 See Kornai, Jnos, Economies of Shortage (Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Company, 1980)Google Scholar. Laszlo Magyar, Swimming; Olga Gyarmaty Track and Field. XXI. in French in three terms and, after earning a Ph.D. in Romance languages at Princeton on a Woodrow Wilson scholarship, became a professor. Though he became a U.S. citizen in 1963, Igloi never returned to the States after 1970, when he left to coach in Greece; after the fall of communism he went back to Hungary, where he died in 1998 at age 89. Now 78, he lives near Lake Pontchartrain in a home spared by Hurricane Katrina and visits Hungary, where he owns an apartment, every summer. Several Sudanese runners also sought asylum in British police stations. ", He arrived with an engineering degree and fenced well, winning or sharing three U.S. titles and representing the U.S. in the Tokyo Olympics. Brny Istvn urnak, 5 July 1957, folder 1957 Uszs, box 105, XIX-I-14-a, MNL OL. The coach announced on Aug. 18, 1948, that she intended to seek asylum in the United States. Zador found himself working as a lifeguard in Oakland, Calif., for $6 an hour before eventually opening a restaurant and running a hotel. To stop a sports career isn't easy. Phone +36 1 386 8000. 106 Jelents: a Politikai bizottsgnak a testnevelsi s sportmozgalom helyzetrl, 30 Dec. 1958, Imre Ternyi, Adminisztrativ Osztly, M-KS 288.30-1958-17 .e., MNL OL. A month before the games, seven members of the basketball team fled to Pakistan. As of yet, it has not appeared to so do. But whatever's happened the last 55 years, there hasn't been a moment I've regretted it. 27 Hoffman, David, Introduction: Interpretations of Stalinism, in Hoffman, David ed., Stalinism: The Essential Readings (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2003), 2CrossRefGoogle Scholar. That's when SI's parent, Time Inc., needed a place in Alexandria, Va., to house its Time-Life Books unit, and the company rented office space from one of the people it had brought to the U.S. Jozsef Sakovics and Lidia Domolky Sakovics, Fencing. 11 Edelman, The Five Hats; McDougall, Alan, The People's Game: Football, State and Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Dufraisse, Sylvain, Des sordides actes de spculation: traces de circulations conomiques dans les dlgations sportives sovitiques (19671982), Hypothses, 18, 1 (2015), 16578CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Parks, Olympic Games; Barbara Cole, The East German Sport System: Image and Reality, PhD diss., Texas Tech University, 2000; Dennis, Mike and Grix, Jonathan, Sport Under Communism: Behind the East German Miracle (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillian, 2013)Google Scholar.

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